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oxhide ingot
Oxhide ingots are metal slabs, usually of copper but sometimes of tin, produced and widely distributed during the Mediterranean Late Bronze Age (LBA). Their shape resembles the hide of an ox with a protruding handle in each of the ingot’s four corners. Early thought was that each ingot was equivalent to the value of one ox.〔Cemal Pulak, “The Copper and Tin Ingots from the Late Bronze Age Shipwreck at Uluburun,” ''Anatolian Metal I'', ed. Ünsal Yalçin, (Bochum: Herausgeber, 2000), 138.〕 However, the similarity in shape is simply a coincidence. The ingots’ producers probably designed these protrusions to make the ingots easily transportable overland on the backs of pack animals.〔Pulak 2000: 140.〕 Complete or partial oxhide ingots have been discovered in Sardinia, Crete, Peloponnese, Cyprus, Cannatello in Sicily, Boğazköy in Turkey (ancient Hattusa, the Hittite capital), Qantir-Piramesse in Egypt, and Sozopol in Bulgaria.〔J.D. Muhly, "The Role of Cyprus in the Economy of the Eastern Mediterranean," ''Acts of the International Archaeological Symposium "Cyprus between the Orient and the Occident" Nicosia, 8–14 Sept. 1985'', ed. V. Karageorghis, (Nicosia: Department of Anitquities, Cyprus, 1986), 55–6; and Fulvia Lo Schiavo, "Oxhide Ingots in the Mediterranean and Central Europe," ''Archaeometallurgy in Sardinia'', eds. Fulvia Lo Schiavo et al., (Montagnac: Éditions Monique Mergoil, 2005), 307.〕 Archaeologists have recovered many oxhide ingots from two shipwrecks off the coast of Turkey (one off Uluburun and one in Cape Gelidonya).
== Context ==
The appearance of oxhide ingots in the archaeological record corresponds with the beginning of the bulk copper trade in the Mediterranean—approximately 1600 BC.〔J.D. Muhly et al., "Cyprus, Crete, and Sardinia: Copper Oxhide Ingots and the Bronze Age Metals Trade," ''Report of the Department of Antiquities,'' Cyprus, Part 1 (Nicosia) 1988: 281.〕 The earliest oxhide ingots found come from Crete and date to the Late Minoan IB.〔Zofia A. Stos-Gale and Noël H. Gale, "New Light on the Provenience of the Copper Oxhide Ingots Found on Sardinia," ''Sardinia in the Mediterranean: A Footprint in the Sea'', eds. Robert H. Tykot and Tamsey K. Andrews, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992), 322.〕 The latest oxhide ingots were found on Sardinia and date to approximately 1000 BC.〔Muhly et al. 283.〕 The copper trade was largely maritime: the principal sites where oxhide ingots are found are at sea, on the coast, and on islands.〔Pulak 2000: 138.〕
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